The Zika virus Academic Essay

Instructions:-

The Zika virus is threatening to become a global epidemic. Use concepts from the course readings to make a your own argument about how the Zika epidemic intersects with other global issues such as health, poverty, inequality, development, human rights, conflict and/or global governance.

Please use at least 2 of the concepts above in the essay.
Some possible resources:
Zika: The new global health terror
http://www.macleans.ca/society/health/zika-the-new-global-health-terror/
Zika’s spread in Brazil is a crisis of inequality as much as health
http://gu.com/p/4gce6/sbl
The Zika virus mosquito is unmasking Brazil’s inequality and indifference
http://gu.com/p/4gnzh/sbl
The Zika Virus and Brazilian Women’s Right to Choose
http://nyti.ms/1UXuXzF
A global defence system to fight virus threats is urgently needed
http://gu.com/p/4h5cg/sbl

Directions:
Use concepts from the assigned readings and course lectures to respond to the prompt. We are not asking you to summarize the readings or answer the questions above. We are not asking for your unsupported opinions. We are asking you to make your own coherent and well supported argument
about the topic. Cite specific concepts, short quotes and examples from the assigned readings as evidence to support your own argument.
Your paper should be 1000-1200 words or about 3-4 pages. Please pay careful attention to spelling, grammar and punctuation. Remember that citations are required for both paraphrasing and direct quotes from either the text or lecture. Feel free to cite other books and articles as needed. Include a full list of works cited at the back

solution

The Zika virus Academic Essay

Abstract

The WHO states “The rise in the spread of Zika virus in Brazil has been accompanied by an unprecedented rise in the number of children being born with unusually small heads—identified as microcephaly. In addition, several countries, including Brazil, reported a steep increase in Guillain-Barré syndrome—a neurological disorder that could lead to paralysis and death. Based on a systematic review of the literature up to 30 May 2016, WHO has concluded that Zika virus infection during pregnancy is a cause of congenital brain abnormalities, including microcephaly; and that Zika virus is a trigger of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Zika virus continues to spread geographically to areas where mosquitoes are present that can transmit the virus.”

Scientists have known about the Zika virus for seven decades, but human infection has only been a serious public-health concern in recent years—especially amid outbreaks that have taught researchers more about emerging, mutated strains of the virus.

There is still much that we don’t understand about Zika, but we do know it’s a catastrophic threat to global public health—even despite the fact that the majority of those who are infected never experience telltale symptoms such as fever, rash, joint pain, red eyes, and muscle aches. This makes it particularly hard to test for—Zika only shows up in a person’s bloodstream about one week after infection, so there’s a fairly small window of time in which a Zika diagnosis can be confirmed through a blood or urine sample.

Zika is of particular concern to pregnant women, whose fetuses can suffer grave outcomes when a woman contracts the virus. Yet the virus can be serious—and in rare cases, deadly—for children and adults, too.

Zika virus is a mosquito-borne virus that is transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. It originated in Uganda in 1947 in Rhesus monkeys in a network of sylvatic yellow fever (Zika Virus, 2016). Later, it was identified in humans in 1952 in Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania. The first ever outbreak of the dangerous zika virus was reported in 2007 hitting the pacific and later in 2013. In 2015, Brazil, Colombia, Cape Verde and 13 American countries have reported sporadic outbreaks which indicate geographical expansion of this deadly virus (Shapshak, Sinnott, Somboonwit & Kuhn, 2016). Zika virus disease carries lethal potential effects and complications. During the 2015 large outbreaks in France, neurological complications alongside auto-immune complications were reported by the national health authorities. In Brazil, health caretakers have reported an increase in Guillain-Barre syndrome as a result of zika virus infection (Brunette, Korzasky & Cohen, 2016). Also an increase in the number of babies with microcephaly associated with zika virus infection has been recorded in Northeast Brazil. Ocular disorders have also been attributed to zika virus presenting with scarring of the retina, spot and pigment alteration.  

The worst hit geographical areas in the world include South America with Brazil being the most affected country. The predicament of Brazil is largely attributed to the world cup competitions that to most experts led to the spread of zika virus from French Polynesia to Brazil. Confirmed cases have now been reported in Central America, Oceania, Caribbean islands, Canada, United States, Australia and Asia in China (Shapshak, Sinnott, Somboonwit & Kuhn, 2016). 

Only recently, around May 2015, has it began to spread in the western hemisphere when the outbreak in Brazil happened. As of now we know that the vector are the infected Aedes mosquitoes biting people but the reservoir is unknown us. After the virus has been incubated for a few days it can cause a fever, skin rashes, conjunctivitis, muscle and joint pain, malaise, and headaches. But the symptoms are mild and normally only last for a 2-7 days (Facts about Microcephaly, 2016).

Recently in the state of Florida, 12 people were diagnosed with zika virus infection. The victims contracted the virus while outside the United States following a visit in areas where transmission is ongoing. Five counties have since been put under a state of emergency which include Broward, Miami-Dade, Hillsborough, lee and the Santa Rosa. The U.S centers for disease control and prevention reacted by issuing travel advisories to 28 countries and places more so to expectant women (Brunette, Korzasky & Cohen, 2016). In Miami-Dade where two people were diagnosed with the zika virus, pregnant women are strictly being warned against visiting the countries perceived to be potentially infective.

                        The Zika virus is a growing pandemic because of its spread to different continents over time. Gradually the virus has been made its way from South America to North America, Mexico being one of the initial North American countries. More recently in the news, there was a confirmed 37 cases of Zika virus in seven of Mexico’s 32 states where 34 of them were infected locally while the other three were infected abroad (Belluz, 2016). Until 2007 there were only about 14 to 15 documented cases of the Zika virus, then in 2016 there have been more than a million people infected in Brazil alone. There have been no signs of its spread slowing down with the virus being reported in about 20 other countries and territories in South and Central America and many Caribbean islands.

                        Health officials have reported that pregnant women should avoid travelling to countries where the virus has been confirmed because there maybe be evidence that links the Zika virus to microcephaly (Facts about Microcephaly, 2016). Microcephaly is a condition where the baby’s is much smaller than expected. The smaller head results from the baby’s brain not developing properly during pregnancy or has stopped after birth. Everybody, whether they are a man, woman, or child is at risk of contracting the Zika virus  if they visit areas with a history of Zika transmission. It is unclear if the virus can be sexually transmitted but the CDC have developed guidelines recommending pregnant women to avoid contact with semen from men who have recently returned from flagged countries.

Because the Zika virus is spread indirectly through a vector, it would be important to establish a case definition to accurately track the distribution of the epidemic. It would also be important to have establish a notification process for all health officials and experts who are most likely to have important new information on the epidemic. Important questions to ask would include: “What symptoms is the suspect case displaying?”, “Where has the patient been recently?”, and since Zika has been shown to be transmitted through sexual contact, “Has he/she had sexual contact with any other individuals recently?” Other crucial pieces of information needed to complete an understanding of the virus are incubation period, possibility of carriers, mechanism for causing birth defects, effective methods of treatment, and distribution of Aedes mosquitos. To accurately obtain such information, case studies should be carried out as well as cross-sectional surveys. Case studies are always useful for obtaining new information on a relatively unknown virus (such as its ability to be sexually transmitted), and cross-sectional surveys require only short time periods to produce broader pieces of information like prevalence and risk levels for different parts of the population. The largest weakness of the two is the lack ability to prove cause and effect, but as the virus is relatively easy to identify and has a short incubation period, symptoms happening after infection can reasonably be attributed the virus. To characterize the virus epidemic, an attack rate is most appropriate, because it describes an event where many new incidents occur within a short time, and among a well-defined population. Pregnant women have already been identified as significantly at risk for having babies with birth defects such as microcephaly; this increase in risk can be found by calculating attack rate of birth defects among pregnant women diagnosed with the Zika virus and comparing it with those who were not.

Guillain-Barre syndrome, birth defects, and poor pregnancy outcomes were reported after the outbreak was found in Brazil in May 2015 (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2016). There is currently no vaccine that exists to prevent the Zika virus infection.  As of now, the only prevention is to avoid mosquito bites.  This can be done by wearing long-sleeved shirts and long pants, staying in places with air conditioning or that have window and door screens to keep mosquitoes outside, sleeping under a mosquito bed net, and by using insect repellents . The mosquitos carrying the Zika virus are most active during the daytime (CDC, 2016).  They are also the same species of mosquito that carry the dengue and chikungunya viruses.  They lay their eggs in or near buckets, bowls, vases, or anything that has standing water.

Zika virus can be found in the blood in the first week a person is infected.  Therefore, if a mosquito bites an infected person in the first week, the mosquito will then carry the virus.  In this way, the virus can be passed on from person to person through a mosquito.  Although only a few cases have been reported, it is possible for a mother infected with Zika virus near the time of her delivery to pass on the virus to her child (Center for Health Protection, 2016).  It is also believed that the virus can be passed on to the baby during the pregnancy as well, but more studies are being done to see how this is possible.  There has not been any evidence so far that shows the virus can be passed on through breast-feeding.  There have been reported cases of spreading the virus through blood transfusions and sexual contact, such as the case found in Texas (Mcneil et al., 2016).

            The three key factors to control communicable diseases are remove, eliminate, or contain the cause of the infection, disrupt the transmission of the disease, and protect the population against infection (Merrill, 2013).  The United States is a home to the Aedes species of mosquitos that carry the virus (CDC, 2016).  However, there has not been any vector-borne transmission of the virus in the United States so far, and it is unlikely that a widespread transmission will occur.  According to the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (2016), it is inevitable that there will be small outbreaks found here in the United States because of how far the virus has been able to spread.  However, the severity of the outbreaks will depend on how aggressively the mosquitos are being killed.  The CDC has been aware of the virus and they are monitoring the epidemics to be prepared to handle cases that are brought back to the United States by travelers.  They have been working with the international public health partners and state health departments to inform healthcare providers and the public about the virus, issue travel notices and travel guidance, provide health laboratories with diagnostic tools, detect and report cases to prevent spread of the virus, and support mosquito control programs.  The CDC is also working on vaccine research and diagnostic development (Office of the Press, 2016).

Interventions have been put in place to contain zika virus spread amongst susceptible population. The world health organization (WHO) is at the forefront in the fight against the emerging virus through the implementation of several policies and strategies (Shapshak, Sinnott, Somboonwit & Kuhn, 2016). First, it supports relevant health authorities in the selection and implementation of vector control strategies in a bid to reduce the Aides mosquito population. This includes provision of insecticides and larvicides that ensure that breeding of the vector mosquito does not continue.

The WHO has also prepared recommendations aimed at defining how diagnosis, clinical care, management and follow up activities for zika virus patients are carried out. However, this is in collaboration with stakeholders in the health sector, health experts and the health agencies in place in the given countries (Brunette, Korzasky & Cohen, 2016). Lastly, since zika is an emerging virus, WHO has taken upon itself to define and better, still prioritize research into Zika virus disease. This has seen experts, partners and specialist being involved all over the world. Through such initiatives, new knowledge is shared and the various laboratories capacity to detect the virus is strengthened.

            Since the main transmission is through mosquitos, currently, the best option for preventing the spread of this disease is through mosquito control (Mcneil et al., 2016).  The CDC is currently assisting control programs across the United States and in other countries as well to address this health problem, as well as other arboviral diseases such as the West Nile virus, Dengue virus, Lyme disease, and many others.  While research continues to develop a vaccine, control of the mosquito population is the most appropriate measure to take in order to prevent further spread and outbreaks of the virus.

References

Belluz, J., Moore, M., & Zarracina, J. (2016, January 28). Zika virus, explained in 6 charts and maps. Retrieved May 13, 2017, from http://www.vox.com/2016/1/20/10795562/zika-virus-cdc-mosquitoes-birth-defects

Center for Health Protection. (2016, February 05). Zika Virus Infection. Retrieved May 13, 2017, from http://www.chp.gov.hk/en/content/9/24/43088.html

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016, February 05). Zika Virus. Retrieved May 13, 2017, from http://www.cdc.gov/zika/index.html

Merrill, R. M. (2013). Introduction to Epidemiology. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Mcneil, D., Romero, S., & Tavernise, S. (2016, February 06). How a Medical Mystery in Brazil Led Doctors to Zika. Retrieved May 13, 2017, from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/07/health/zika-virus-brazil-how-it-spread-explained.html?_r=0

Mcneil, D. G., Louis, C. S., & St, N. (2016, February 03). Short Answers to Hard Questions About Zika Virus. Retrieved May 13, 2017, from http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/health/what-is-zika-virus.html?_r=0

Office of the Press Secretary. (2016, February 08). Preparing for and Responding to the Zika Virus at Home and Abroad. Retrieved May 13, 2017, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/08/fact-sheet-preparing-and-responding-zika-virus-home-and-abroad

Facts about Microcephaly. (2016, January 29). Retrieved May 13, 2017, from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/microcephaly.html

Zika virus. (2016, January). Retrieved May 13, 2017, from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/zika/en/

In Shapshak, P., In Sinnott, J. T., In Somboonwit, C., & In Kuhn, J. H. (2016). Global virology I: Identifying and investigating viral diseases.